Welcome to Japanese 233:
Study Tour about Japanese Women
Last updated Wednesday, June 9, 2004
Himeji castle 
Torii gate 
Noh masks
Maiko
In Japan, some of your meals, lodging, and transportation will be paid for by the program. You will have roughly fifteen meals that are not included. Other than those things, you will need to decide for yourself how much you want to spend. Ultimately, how much you decide to buy and spend depends on you. By the way, you might want to bring a coin purse or something to carry all your change, because you always end up with a lot of coins in Japan. The smallest bill is 1000 yen, which is about $10.
Here is a link to pictures of Japanese currency
Speaking of money, make sure to convert yours to traveler's checks. We will be able to exchange to Japanese yen once we get to the airport. Many places do not take credit cards in Japan, so cash is best.
Here are links to some of the places that we will be staying (some sites are in Japanese):
| Week | Date | Readings before meeting | Activity |
| 3 | 3/15/04 | Course requirements Intro to women in contemporary society |
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| 4 | 4/22/04 | Lunch meeting with Karen Hill Anton to discuss life as a foreign woman in contemporary Japan | |
| 5 | 4/27/04 | CIP Orientation | |
| 5 | 4/29/04 |
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Women in contemporary society |
| 7 | 5/13/04 |
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Heian, Tokugawa, Meiji/Taisho |
| 9 | 5/27/04 |
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Contemporary/Work/War |
Discussion questions for Ogasawara
Ogasawara, Yuko. Office Ladies and Salaried Men: Power, Gender and Work in Japanese Companies. UC Press, 1998.
INTRODUCTION
Chapter One: THE JAPANESE LABOR MARKET AND OFFICE LADIES
1. How would you characterize three different corporate job tracks—
| Integrated track | Clerical track | Miscellaneous | |
| Who gets this kind of job? | |||
| What chances for promotion does each have? |
Chapter Two: WHY OFFICE LADIES DO NOT ORGANIZE
Chapter Three: GOSSIP
Chapter Four: POPULARITY POLL
Chapter Five: ACTS OF RESISTANCE
Chapter Six: MEN CURRY FAVOR WITH WOMEN
CONCLUSION
Reading guide and study questions for pre-modern women (May 13 meeting):
Statement of principles: |
To understand any culture, nothing can take the place of a historical consciousness, both of the culture under investigation as well as of one's own. Repeat after me: There is no such thing as traditional Japan. There is no such thing as traditional Japan. The past is not a mass of undifferentiated time. Henceforth, it will be expected that statements about pre-twentieth century Japan will be qualified by a specific century or historic period. Naive statements attributing practices, ideologies, etc. to a vague traditional Japan will not be accepted. Unfortunately, we cannot simultaneously introduce the class to the history of women in the western world, but be very, very wary of privileging your own twenty-first century, middle class, American lives as the norm for American women of your own generation, let alone centuries of women's experiences in the west. Make sure your comparisons between cultures have bases in the historical realities of both cultures. |
| Overview of the handout reading: |
The readings can be divided into three groups: those dealing with the Heian period, those that address the Tokugawa period, and the several first person accounts of the war years (WW II) written by women.
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| Heian readings |
| 1. "Beginnings of Prose Writings by Women in Japan" |
| This article is provided for the background information it gives for the social place of upper class women in Heian Japan (794-1185 CE) Uniquely in the world, Japan's earliest prose, vernacular (Japanese) literature is the work of women. This article gives an introduction to those circumstances, especially the intersection of Japanese language, its sentiments, and femininity. There are two complete translations of the Kagero^ nikki. The better by far of the two is Sonja Arntzen's Kagero^ diary, which is available in the library. |
| 2. Selected chapters from The Tale of Genji. |
The Tale of Genji is generally considered to be the earliest "novel" in the world. Its author, Murasaki Shikibu was a court woman, who composed the text beginning around 1000 CE. It recounts the life of Genji, the son of an emperor, and his numerous relationships with women. It is beyond the scope of this short document to go into the thematic complexities of the text, which are in any case, much debated. Suffice it to say, it is overall strongly Buddhist in tone but can be read as well in a proto-feminist manner, that is, as disclosing the unhappiness of women in their relationships with men.
The text begins in a very romantic fashion, as you will see, but in the later chapters becomes much more realistic and darker in its vision. Chap. 1 recounts Genji's birth and early years, as well as the love between the emperor and Genji's mother.
The Genji contains fifty-four chapters. Genji dies between chapters 41 and 42, and the remaining chapters center on two of his descendents Niou and Kaoru. Much of the final ten chapters take place not in Kyoto but in Uji, an area in that time a day's travel from the city, along the Uji River. There the two male protagonists become involved with various women. This section of the novel is much darker than the Genji chapters, filled with misunderstandings and resentments, with women increasingly turning their backs on the possibility of relationships with the men who court them. Even in the Genji chapters, there were women who became nuns, renouncing their sexual beings, to escape from relationships. In the Uji chapters, two women also die or attempt to die, so pressured they feel to respond to men when for complex psychological reasons they are unable to do so. |
| 3. Pillow book selection |
| Sei Shonagon was a contemporary of Murasaki Shikibu; they served at court at the same time, but in the entourages of different imperial concubines. Instead of Murasaki Shikibu's focus on the pathos of human relationships and their ultimately unsatisfying nature, Shonagon took a more brisk, unsentimental approach to life. Her text, The pillow book is a collection of journal entries on whatever she found interesting enough to write about. This particular entry is her look at the desired decorum of a lover. |
| Tokugawa period |
| 4. Onna daigaku |
| We jump the Tokugawa period and 1672, when this text was prepared by Kaibara Ekken (Ekiken), a neo-Confucian ethicist. Following upon a feudal period that began in the later twelfth century, the Tokugawa period was significantly different in its social structure, legal systems, etc. from the court society of the Heian. In the prior warrior society, women had already lost much of their legal status as persons, and under Confucian influence, their (primarily samurai women) behavior was explicitly monitored in the Tokugawa. Because there were few moral guides for women and girls, Kaibara produced this text. The title is "The woman's 'Great Learning'" (the women's equivalent of the Chinese Confucian classic "The Great Learning.") Read this text first and then the "Marriage and divorce" and the "Good Wives" website (www3.la.psu.edu/textbooks/172/ch11_main.htm) for a more realistic view of what occurred in society. |
| 5. "Marriage and Divorce" |
| This chapter is taken from a translation of Yamakawa Kikue's (1890-1980) recollections of the stories her mother told of her life in the last half-century or so of the Tokugawa period. Incidentally, Yamakawa was herself an early socialist and feminist leader in modern Japan. (A research paper topic?) |
| World War II |
| 6. Voices of women in WW II. |
| These are several first-person accounts of women's lives during World War II. They provide background for our visit to Hiroshima. |
Below are the questions for the following handouts: Genji, Pillow book, Onna daigaku, and Marriage and divorce. Another document will follow for the website article, "Good Wives and Wise Mothers."
Genji questions
chap. 1 (Pawlonia Pavilion)
1. What is the background of the consort [Haven] so beloved of the emperor?
2. Who is her primary rival? How does her background differ?
3. What are the consequences for the women of many women serving the Emperor as consort? That is, what are the sexual politics of the imperial court?
4. How has the emperor violated the proper order of things in his love for the Haven lady?
5. In Buddhist terms, what are the consequences of human attachment? For the emperor? For the Haven's mother?
6. What marvelous qualities does the young Genji (the Haven's child) have?
7. Why does the emperor not make him Crown Prince?
8. Why does the new Consort, Fujitsubo, escape the poor treatment that ended the Haven's life?
9. Who does she so resemble?
10. At the end of the chapter, what is the nature of Genji's love for Fujitsubo?
11. Why is the Minister of the Left's daughter less than pleased to be married to Genji?
12. What themes are set up? What plot complications?
Chap. 2 (Broom Tree)
1. What picture of male-female relations do you get at the beginning of the chapter with the discussion of the notes.
2. What are the various rankings/categories of women that the men come up with?
3. What are the expectations for a wife? What qualities make a woman a less attractive candidate for a wife?
4. How do the men feel women should deal with their (the men's) infidelity?
5. And if the women do otherwise?
6. If the women are quiet and unprotesting, what seems to happen then? Look at the Secretary Captain’s story.
7. How do the men deal with the women's infidelity and other "failings?"
8. Who do the men consistently blame for the failure of relationships?
9. What, in sum, are the qualities that men wish for in women?
10. What means of protest or control are available to women in their relationships with men?
chap. 9 (Heart to heart)
1. Who is the woman about whom the emperor (Genji's father) scolds Genji?
2. What happens between Genji's wife's men and those of the Rokujo Haven at the Festival? Why?
3.How does Genji's behavior at the Festival add to Rokujo's pain?
4. Who lives at Nijo^ palace?
5. What is Rokujo's state of mind in the days after the Festival?
6. In the meantime, what is happening with Genji's wife?
7. Who are the people who might be possibly possessing her?
8. Whose spirit does appear to be possessing her? How does that person react to her knowledge?
9. When Genji's wife recites a poem to him, whose voice does he think he hears?
10. Does this poem seem in character for that woman? For Genji's wife? What quality of character do these women share that seems alien to the poem?
11. Why does Genji now seem actually to love his wife?
12. To whom does Genji turn near the end of the chapter?
13. What happens between them? How is her reaction depicted? Why?
Pillow Book questions
1. Compare with the Genji's discussion by men about what they desire in a spouse. Bearing in mind that Sho^nagon is not describing a husband, how do the two descriptions differ in their focus? What are the qualities that she desires men to have? What sorts of things are not mentioned?
2. Who do you think Sho^nagon's audience is for her journal entry?
Onna daigaku (Great Learning for Women) Questions
1. Why is the proper education of girls/women especially important?
2. What are the proper qualities of a woman?
3. Why must women keep so apart from men?
4. What do the seven reasons for divorce tell you about the expected function and behavior of a wife in her husband's family?
5. The author writes that "A woman has no particular lord" (38). How does he then go on to fit the woman into the hierarchical structure of obedience of Tokugawa society?
6. What are the sorts of behavior that a woman must be on guard against? From what do they all detract, making them so undesirable?
7. What is the woman's role in relation to her inferiors (servants)?
8. What is meant by a woman's silliness? What would be a more precise term or phrase?
Marriage and divorce questions
1. What were the various considerations in choosing a marriage partner?
2. What were the impediments to marriage for men? Why could younger sons not get married?
3. Why did some women have difficulty in getting married?
4. According to the author did divorce and remarriage actually take place? What do you make of this?
5. What and whose considerations led to remarriage after the death of a spouse?
6. How, according to the author, were women/girls taught the "Great Learning for Women?"
7. How does the author explain the principles behind the “Great Learning”? What was important in a Tokugawa era, samurai marriage and how did that differ from the modern sense of "sexual morality?"
8. How was the position of the wife distinguished from a concubine’s and thus protected? Ironically, how did this break down in the early Meiji period?
9. In fact, do you see this as protection? What burdens would a wife with a husband with concubine(s) have?
10. Why was it more likely for a lower ranking samurai to divorce his wife, rather than take a concubine?
11. What other reasons for divorce does the author discuss? Why were these divorces necessary, given the Tokugawa samurai values? In each case, on whose authority is the divorce conducted?
11. Does the author's statement that the "husband’s side …would not have been able to act so irresponsibly were there a threat that the wife would kill herself…” (112) surprise you? Why do you think they would have been able to act in this way?
12. Which side of the family initiated the vast majority of divorces?
13. What recourse did a woman have if she wished to obtain a divorce?
14. What was a samurai expected to do if his wife were unfaithful?
15. What would be the consequences if he failed to do so?
16. What does the author surmise was the reality of the situation?
17. How does the author warn the reader against judging the Tokugawa period by his or her own modern standards?
18. The year 1883 is Meiji 18, the Meiji period being the time when Japan began its process of modernization. Does it surprise you that the divorce rate dropped in the modern period? How does the author explain the drop? Why do we generally equate a rise in women’s status with higher rates of divorce?
”Good Wives and Wise Mother” http:/www3.la.psu.edu/textbooks/172/chll_main.htm
This article was written by Prof. Gregory Smits of Penn State. It is a good
digest of the changes in the notions of the role of women, and esp. mothers
in Japanese culture between the Tokugawa and Meiji periods. It is especially
important because Prof. Smits emphasizes that “what appears today to be
“traditional” behavior was in fact a recent contruct sponsored by
the modern state and connected with the idea of Japan as a [modern] nation….
(1). His sources are also excellent, and they may be useful for research purposes.
Questions:
1. Why can the term “modern” not be simplistically associated with such notions as “progessive,” “up-to-date,” etc.?
2. According to the author, to what kind of women and what percentage of women were such rules as those advanced in Onna daigaku actually applicable?
3. What does the author mean by a “presentist” bias?
4. What is problematic about regarding work life and home life (production // reproduction as well) as separate spheres in the Tokugawa period?
5. For the majority of the Japanese population, were male and female labor differently valued?
6. What is the distinction the author draws between ideological categories and analytical ones/
7. For whom did such dichotomies really apply in the Tokugawa period?
8. For the vast majority of people, what process for the first time enforced the dichotomy?
9. In the Meiji period of modernization, what role did the government find for the earlier samurai values?
10. What further differences were there in the structures of authority between elite samurai families and all others?
11. Why, according to the author, would a man as an individual not be free to divorce his wife arbitrarily?
12. Were the divorced women the stereotypical outcastes?
13. What was the divorce/remarriage situation among commoners?
14. What reason does t he author cite for the drop in divorce rates in the modern period?
15. What options did a woman have for divorce when her husband would not give her one?
16. How were the attitudes towards sexual behavior and freedom different between the elite samurai class and their “inferiors”?
17. How did the Meiji government attempt to close these gaps? Why (for what purposes), did they do so?
18. What, for the Meiji officials, was the vision of ideal womanhood? What was a new element?
19. How did industrialization contribute to the change in gender roles? How did the educational establishment contribute?
20. Why was the role of mother not accorded great significance in the Tokugawa period? If the main caregiver of a child was not the biological mother, who do you think it was?
21. Why did this change in the Meiji? What was the new significance of motherhood?
22. How was the educational system implicated?
23. Who provided women with the “guidance” to fulfill their roles as mothers properly? How does this compare with the US? Think about books on childrearing, the intervention of social services when mothers “fail.”
24. How did women fare in the Meiji legal code?
25. How were sexual mores altered? Who or what were the instruments of change?
| Chapter 1-Introduction | 1. According to
Iwao, how do Japanese and American women differ in their view of equality? 2. What was the status of women in Japan before modernization? 3. What changes occurred with early modernization? 4. Briefly discuss women in contemporary society. 5. Describe the non-confrontational strategy of Japanese society. 6. What is the view of equality by Japanese women? 7. What changes occurred between the older generation and the first postwar generation? 8. What were some of the causes of these changes? |
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| Chapter 2-Akiko | 1. What were some of the differences
between the life of Akiko and that of her mother? 2. What was Akiko’s life like when her children were small? 3. Why and how did Akiko become involved in activism? 4. Find some examples in Akiko’s life that illustrate some of the information from chapter 1. |
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| Chapter 3-Marriage | 1. What was the traditional
view of marriage until very recently? 2. In this traditional view, what were the beliefs about marriage and love? 3. What are some ways that Japanese find a spouse? 4. Why do some men find it difficult to find a spouse today in Japan? 5. What do Japanese women expect from marriage according to this chapter? 6. Analyze the charts on pages 70 and 72. What conclusions can you draw from them? 7. How is a good relationship like air? 8. What four reasons does Iwao give for many women choosing to be a stay-at-home mother? 9. Does holding the purse strings in a family give women more independence? 10. How is a good husband “healthy and absent? |
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| Chapter 4-Communication | 1. Compare the first postwar
generation with the older generation in terms of communication. 2. Discuss the typical man's view of communication at home. 3. What is the view of sexual fidelity in Japanese marriages? 4. How has the rate of divorce changed in recent years in Japan and what are some causes of this? 5. How does retirement affect many marriages? |
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| Chapter 5-Motherhood and the home | 1. What is the traditional
view of mother in Japan? 2. What is the status given to mothers in society? 3. What are some of the causes given for the declining birth rate? 4. How are children the center of the family in Japan? 5. What is life like for working mothers in Japan? 6. How does the mother-child relationship change or not change as the child reaches adulthood? |
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| Chapter 6-Work as an Option | 1. Describe the state of women
working in Japan until the 1980's. 2. What is the “M curve” and how does it give insight into the situation of women working? 3. What laws are in place to protect and support working women? 4. What are the two tracks that women can choose in terms of working for a company? How does this affect men? 5. Discuss some of the issues related to women and work today in Japan. |
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| Chapter 7-Work as Profession | 1. Discuss some of the issues
facing career women today in Japan with regard to pay, promotion, management,
and sexual harassment. 2. How have Japanese companies and Japanese society reacted to the changes in women working? |
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| Chapter 8-Politics and no Power | 1. What is the history of
women's involvement in politics before World War II? 2. What is the current status of women in politics? 3. What occurred in the 1989 elections and why is it so important with regard to women and politics? 4. What is the Doi phenomenon? How has it been viewed by Japanese society? 5. How have the roles of women in politics changed since the 1989 elections? |
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| Chapter 9-Fulfillment through Activism | 1. Describe a full-time activist
housewife. 2. What are some of the issues these activists seek to address? 3. Why do they become involved and continue their involvement in these issues? 4. What is the status of the women's movement in Japan today? |
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| Chapter 10-Directions of Change | 1. What are some of the changes that are expected in terms of women in Japanese society in terms of
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Group Topic Readings
Mynti and Jen |
1 | Women and religion | Okano, “Women’s
Image and Place in Japanese Buddhism” JSTOR article#(Monumenta Nipppponica): Pandey, Rajyashree. “Women, Sexuality, and Enlightenment” |
| Sarah and Natalie | 2 | Education/College women | Hara, “Challenges to
Education for Girls and women in Modern Japan” Fujimura-Fanselow, “College Women Today: Options and Dilemmas” |
| Danielle and Jack | 3 | Yosano Akiko/New Feminism | Rodd, “Yosano Akiko and
the New Taisho Debate on Women” (Bernstein) Fujieda, “Japan’s First Phase of Feminism” Tanaka, “The New Feminist Movement in Japan, 1970-1990” |
| Nina, Kelsay, and Matt G. | 4 | Women and Media | Painter, “Tele-representation
of Gender in Japan” (in Imamura) Suzuki, “Women and Television: Portrayal of Women in Mass Media” Kinsella. “Cuties in Japan” |
| Michelle and Meghan | 5 | Women and Language | Endo. “Aspects of Sexism
in Language” Okamoto. “Ideology and Social Meanings: Rethinking the Relationship Between Language, Politeness, and Gender.” In Benor |
| Andrea and Dan | 6 | Women and Sexuality | Funabashi “Pornographic
Culture and Sexual Violence” Matsui “The Plight of Asian Migrant Women Working in Japan’s Sex Industry” |
| Matt L. and Kristin | 7 | Women and Theater | Robertson. Intro from Takarazuka. JSTOR# Article: Donald Shively (Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies). Bakufu Versus Kabuki. |
**All readings are in Fujimura-Fanselow and Kameda unless noted**
#Please print JSTOR (full text) articles for yourself, from the college library
site.
Things you should know before we go
Helpful hints
Clothing:
- Shoes are taken off in the home and in many schools. As a result, having presentable socks is essential. If you wear sandals, plan to keep a pair of socks in your bag to put on when you have to remove your shoes.
- The Japanese tend to dress up more than Americans. When we visit schools or factories, men should wear a shirt with a collar and a pair of slacks. Women should wear a pair of slacks or a long skirt and a shirt with sleeves. We will be visiting schools on two different days, so you can wear the same thing both days.
- On the days that we will be sightseeing, pants and short-sleeved shirts will be fine, as long as they are conservative. That means no holes or patches, no tank tops or spaghetti straps, no midriff showing, etc. It is going to be VERY hot and humid, so you won't need any jeans or sweaters. Plan to bring lightweight comfortable clothing. You might want a lightweight rain jacket.
- We will be sitting on the floor quite a bit, so plan to dress in comfortable clothing that can accommodate this. Shorts skirts are not advised.
- The hotel in Himeji has a pool and hot tub, so bring your swimming suit so we can relax and unwind there. There is a charge for this.
- It may rain for a good bit of the time that we are in Japan. It will also be very hot and humid. You should plan to bring lightweight comfortable clothing, at least two pairs of shoes (in case one gets wet in the rain) and a folding umbrella.
- Pack light! We will be hauling our suitcases here and there, so you will want something that is easy to move and not too heavy. We won't mind if you wear the same thing more than once, and we will have access to laundry facilities at a couple of times during the trip.
Other items to bring:
- Pocket tissues for use in public restrooms
- A handkerchief or two to dry your hands after you wash them in public restrooms since there are generally no paper towels.
- Anti-bacterial gel. It is often hard to find soap and warm water for hand washing in public places.
- All the toiletries you need. Items like shampoo, toothpaste, and antiperspirant are expensive and might not be exactly what you want. It is better to bring all you will need of your own for such a short trip.
- Postcards that show Michigan and family photos to show to your host family. Any pictures of your school would be interesting to the students on the school visits also.
Possible gifts for host families:
- Place mats and napkins (set of 5)
- Flavored teas with teacups
- Candy
- Maple syrup or other locally made foods
- Anything with college logos or names on them (Like Kalamazoo College!)
- Key chains
While we are there:
You will need change to buy drinks from vending machines because it will be so hot! You will also need a change purse to carry all of your coins. You can buy phone cards when we get there which you can use in public telephones. Many phone cards purchased here do not work in Japan!
General information about Japan
Education links
Official site of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and
TechnologyElementary and Secondary education information
Basic information about Japanese education
Japan education from International Society for Educational
Information (1995)
Japanese food and etiquette
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Japanese newspapers in English
Ise information
Uji information
Nara information
Imura Envelope Company (in Japanese-click on "envelope" to see the types they make!)
Kyoto
information 
Himeji information
Himeji information from a college web site
Hiroshima information
Takarazuka information
Osaka information
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Reading
assignments
